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THE HISTORY STUDENT’S HANDBOOK
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Introduction |
Part III: Writing Book Reviews This document is also available in Adobe Acrobat (.pdf) format. Click here to download the Handbook and here to download Adobe. |
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History essays are more than narrative accounts of the past. History is a discipline based on interpretation, debate, analysis, and synthesis, and the purpose of a history essay is to communicate useful conclusions in a logical, lucid, purposeful, and persuasive manner. History essays that are mere narratives of historical events, without being analytical are, therefore, of limited value. Analytical essays are also called argumentative ones, because you are trying (which is what essayer means in French) to convince the reader of your point of view. The argument developed throughout the paper must be persuasive, which means that it is supported with evidence and analysis. This is not the same as an argument that is merely asserted. Argument that is asserted—though often written using confident language—lacks evidence, logical progression, and analysis. In order to make your argument as objective and persuasive as possible, use counter-arguments and counter-evidence to show why your idea must be accepted as the more correct one. Historical Perspective Making a strong argument also means paying careful attention to historical perspective. No matter what historians chooses to research, be it politics, diplomacy, economics, society, or culture, our principal task is to understand the historical context of the issue at hand. It is impossible, for example, to explain royal power in the seventeenth century without also explaining the beliefs, rules, and customs governing that society. It would not make sense to critique a seventeenth-century government on the grounds that it did not afford its citizens democratic rights, because the notion of democracy was not established until much later. These types of arguments are anachronistic, which means imposing modern beliefs on earlier times. This approach is ahistorical, as individuals from history cannot be expected to appreciate ideas that did not exist in their time. Historical perspective also means not making inappropriate, overly moralistic arguments. We are often troubled by the prevalence of violence in history and are shocked to learn about abuses of what we today call human rights. While statements about the particular cruelty, immorality, or injustice of an individual or state are not necessarily out of place in historical essays, we must be careful to take into account the prevailing norms and practices of the period in question. Your job is to explain how and why an event occurred, not to criticize the fact that it occurred. It would be inappropriate, for example, to argue that women should not have been accused of witchcraft in the seventeenth century or that capital punishment should not have happened in the eighteenth century, because the simple fact is that these events did happen. Objectively explaining events that seem amoral to you does not mean that you morally agree with what happened, but rather shows that you can understand these events in their proper, historical context. Part I: The Pre-Writing Process Writing a history paper requires much more than just sitting down at a computer. It involves a lot of early planning, detailed research, critical thinking, skilled organization, and careful writing and rewriting. The first rule of essay writing is to start early so that you have plenty of time to follow these steps. An essay that is hastily conceived, researched, organized, or written, will inevitably be lacking in essential components, which will always results in a lower grade. Finding a Topic Sometimes, your professor will assign a specific topic for investigation and provide the research materials that are necessary to complete the paper. More commonly, you will be required to select your own subject and then conduct a search for materials. The topic must be one that is interesting to you. A topic that engages your interest will be more enjoyable to research and write about, will result in more valuable findings, and will sustain your enthusiasm for an extended period of time. If you feel compelled to choose a topic about which you have a strong moral or ethical opinion, be careful to gather materials that express opinions on all sides so that your own biases do not overwhelm the paper. The topic you choose must also be relevant to the themes, questions, or issues addressed in your course. Reviewing your class notes or speaking to your instructor about a topic raised in lecture or readings will help you select a topic that will contribute specific knowledge to the course. After selecting a topic, ask yourself the following questions: Is the topic sufficiently narrow? If not, you might not be able to do justice to the topic in the prescribed length or scope of the assignment. Is the topic feasible? If there are not likely to be enough sources available, or if you do not have the necessary technical or language skills, think about another topic. Does the topic have enough probative and provocative value? Because the key purpose of writing a history essay is to put forward an argument or debate, a topic about which a lot has been written might not lend itself to these goals. Can I use the subject to demonstrate my ability to research, interpret, organize, and convey important ideas? These, in addition to a good writing style, are the aspects of the paper that professors are evaluating. If the answer to any of these questions is “no”, consider revising your topic or choosing a new one. Most people will select and reject several topics before finding one that meets all of these criteria. Formulating Research Questions After choosing your topic, form one or two questions that you must answer in order to make a contribution to knowledge in the subject area. Preparing such questions in advance—even though they are likely to change as you perform your research—will help you choose appropriate sources and avoid the tendency merely to narrate facts and events with no specific purpose in mind. For example: To what extent was World War I caused by international power struggles? Did these power struggles exist for a long period, or were they relatively short-term? Finding Sources After arriving at your topic and principal research questions, it is time to look for appropriate source materials. Remember to use the range and number of sources required by your professor. Many history essays will require the use of both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are unanalyzed, contemporary documents (that is, they were written in the time you are studying). These documents can be in manuscript (hand written) form, which are sometimes assembled into microfilm collections; unpublished, typed documents (such as official letters and memoranda); or published documents, which are often assembled into volumes. Primary sources are not always easy to find and sometimes their availability will help to determine or narrow the specific nature of your project. The internet is sometimes a good place to look for primary sources, provided that they come from a reliable institution. Examples of Primary Sources
Diaries and journals Secondary sources are scholars’ interpretations of primary sources or critiques of other scholars’ ideas. Secondary sources can be found in the University library and the internet using various search engines, such as Historical Abstracts and America: History and Life, which may be accessed through the University of Calgary library website under the heading “Article Indexes.” Examples of Secondary Sources
Journal articles provide the results of research
on a focused subject Evaluating Printed and Internet Sources Always evaluate the usefulness of a source before devoting too much time to reading it. Examples of Poor Sources
Popular history (works written by non-academics
or published by non-academic presses) Examples of Better Sources
Works whose argument is still relevant (this
depends on the subject matter) Students must be extremely cautious when seeking information on the World Wide Web. The web is an unregulated medium and anybody, anywhere, can upload material. Be wary of websites from interest groups, such as those who promote wildlife preservation, holocaust denial, certain political parties or individuals, and even certain types of news. Just because the opinions expressed on these sites are “in print” does not make them true or reliable. Reliable internet sites are usually (though not always) those with extensions such as .edu (an educational institution) and .ca, .uk, and .gov (material deriving from Canadian, British, and American governments). Major news outlets, such as CNN, NBC, CBC, etcetera, are likely to be objective, but you should verify all information you get from these sites. Avoid sites ending in .com, as these are commercial sites that can be purchased by anybody. Material that appears elsewhere in print (especially academic journal articles) should be cited instead of the electronic version. When in doubt, ask your professor about using internet sources before devoting time to researching on that medium. Reading and Note Taking Historians read source material carefully and smartly. It is not always necessary to read every word, nor to read an entire book or article if the material you require is represented in a small portion of the complete work. Good writers will have their argument and structure laid out in the introduction and conclusion and will begin each paragraph with a topic sentence. These will help you determine the usefulness of a source or portion of a source quickly. While reading, take notes that will help you understand, evaluate, and synthesize your subject. Although some students prefer today to take notes on a computer, a pad of paper or an index card is best, because this will reduce the chances of taking down irrelevant information. Above all, your notes should focus on answering your research question. Direct quotations should be recorded sparingly, because they will be used sparingly in the essay. Instead, paraphrase and summarize the author’s argument. Before moving on to the next source, jot down your own ideas about the source, so that you can build on this in the essay. Remember to record the complete citation (author, title, place and date of publication) and page numbers of all quoted and paraphrased materials. Failure to do so may result in a desperate return to the library to find a source you should have recorded in the first place. Composing a Thesis Statement After you have read and taken notes on your source material, it is time to prepare a thesis statement, or argument. This statement, usually consisting of one, complex sentence, is the answer to your principal research question (see above), not the question itself. It is the sole argument to be proven throughout the paper and all of your evidence must relate somehow to the thesis statement. A weak thesis statement is one whose argument is obvious to the reader and does not stand in need of proof. A good thesis statement is one whose argument is aggressive, sustainable, and stands in need of proof to be correct. Be careful not to make a statement that will be impossible to prove throughout the paper. Consider the following examples: World War I was a conflict between European powers. This statement contains a weak, evident generality without an argument to be proven. World War I was the result of various international power struggles in Europe. This statement is slightly better, but still too broad and without sufficient indication of the argument. World War I resulted from the confluence of various long-term and short-term international power struggles, best characterized by a series of preconditions, precipitants, and triggers. This statement contains a distinct argument, stands in need of proof, and can be proven in the essay. It also indicates the structure of the paper, which is an optional component of a thesis statement. Preparing a Proposal At this stage of the project, your professor will sometimes ask that an essay proposal be submitted for review or grading. The purpose of an essay proposal is to convince the reader that the project is sustainable, that the sources selected are sufficient and useful, and that a persuasive argument can or has been formulated. Proposals are normally between two and four pages long, and might also be accompanied by an annotated bibliography of sources (see part IV below.) The proposal—which must be written in prose, not point form—answers the following questions: ü What is your topic and how is it defined (thematically, chronologically)? ü What is/are your principal research question(s) and why? ü What is your hypothesis or preliminary answer to research question(s)? ü Why is your project interesting and important? ü What do you expect your reader to learn from your project? ü What sources are you going to use? Why are these the best sources? ü Is there a methodology you are applying and, if so, why is it appropriate? ü What preliminary conclusions have you formed? Once the proposal is returned with comments, it might be necessary to focus the topic more, return to the library for additional sources, modify your research questions, find a more persuasive argument, or even abandon the project and begin a new one. Assembling Notes and Preparing an Outline Now that you have a complex thesis statement that needs to be proven, develop an outline. Sometimes it is helpful to “brainstorm” the topic for five minutes. To do so, take out a piece of paper, set a timer, and write down everything you know about your topic in a flow chart. After the timer goes off, look at your results and pull the disparate ideas together to form various sub-themes of your topic. Then prepare the outline, which will help to ensure that the paper is highly organized, focused on the thesis statement, and contains all the evidence necessary to prove your argument. For example: I. Introduction: state topic and thesis statement, give structure of paper II. Preconditions (“Long term” causes) a. Anglo and Franco-German Rivalry (arms race) b. Triple Entente and Triple Alliance c. African imperialism III. Precipitants (“Short term” causes) a. Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand b. “48 hour ultimatum” c. The Forming of Alliances IV. Triggers (“Immediate” causes) a. Schlieffen Plan b. Invasion of Belgium c. British ultimatum V. Conclusion: restate thesis statement; why is this paper important? Outlines can be much more complex than the one in this example and include the evidence that will be used to prove each theme and sub-theme. Good writers often go through several outlines before arriving at one that will result in a top-quality essay. After you have completed the outline, look at each theme to be addressed closely and identify any weak areas. Once the outline is completed to your satisfaction, assemble your notes in the order you will need them during the writing process. It might be necessary at this point to make a final trip to the library to research specific items. Finally, your professor will sometimes ask you to submit your thesis statement and outline for grading before you proceed with writing the essay. There are numerous techniques writers use to prepare the draft of an essay. Some begin with the introduction and write the paper to its conclusion. Others write several formal paragraphs for each theme, assemble the paper, and then write the introduction and conclusion. Whatever system you use, all history papers require an introduction, body, and conclusion. Audience, Voice and Tense Essays are always written for an audience, which is the person who will be reading the paper. Unless you are told otherwise, assume that your audience is a person exactly like yourself: mature, intelligent, and interested, with a similar educational background and body of knowledge. Do not assume that your audience is your professor—even though this is usually the case—and that, therefore, you do not have to explain key terms or write in a manner that reflects clarity, conciseness, and precision. Professors often hear from students something like, “I thought you would know what I meant”, which is not the same as writing what you mean. If you or a fellow student would require a definition, clarification, or explanation, then provide these to your reader. Always ensure that your writing is in the active “voice.” This means writing prose that is direct and persuasive. Passive writing is weak, wordy, and less compelling. An example of passive writing would be, “You should try to make sure that your writing is done in the active voice,” instead of the shorter and more compelling version written above. It is also passive to place the verb before the subject in sentence. Thus, instead of writing “the food was eaten [verb] by the cat [subject],” write the more direct “the cat ate the food.” “Voice” also refers to who is doing the speaking; be careful to indicate whether the ideas you express are your own or are derived from a primary or secondary source. Although it is acceptable today to use the pronoun “I” to indicate your own thoughts, ensure that it is used in an objective, rather than a subjective, manner. (When in doubt, speak to your professor.) Historians, as opposed to writers in related disciplines, such as literature and sociology, generally write about the past in the past tense and reserve the present tense only for contemporary events (that is, events occurring “at the present time.”) Using words that imply the past tense infuse a correct historical perspective into your writing. The Introduction An introduction fulfills a number of tasks. It should reveal your topic and its relevance, establish the chronological and thematic parameters of the paper, provide any necessary definitions, and state the argument and the manner in which the paper will proceed to prove the thesis statement. If your topic is one that has been debated by historians, it will also be necessary in the introduction to position your argument within the current debate. Although the introduction is often referred to as a “reverse pyramid,” moving from the general to the specific, do not begin your paper with broad generalities and rhetorical statements such as “Since the beginning of time” or “Throughout recorded history”. Be careful that your introduction, and indeed the entire paper, does not contain value judgments or subjective ideas, such as “I think World War I was a very bad war that should not have happened,” which are impossible to prove using historical evidence. In most undergraduate history papers, the introduction is one paragraph long, although papers written for senior courses might be several pages so that the nature of the debate can be explained fully. The introduction is normally about 10% of the total length of the paper. Although most students tend to write the introduction quickly in order to move to the body of the essay, this is a mistake. A clear, concise, and precise statement of your topic, thesis, and structure, can make the difference between an “A” and a “B” paper. The Body The body of the paper is where you introduce each theme, explain its relevance to the thesis statement, and offer the evidence, interpretation, and critical and abstract thinking necessary to prove your argument. Essays are always written in paragraph form and lengthier papers (15 pages or more) are sometimes divided into sub-headings to indicate the transition between themes. Sub-headings are discouraged in shorter papers. Contrary to what we are often taught in high school, the formulaic “five paragraph essay”, with an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion, is rarely useful. Instead, the essay will require as many paragraphs as you have themes and sub-themes to develop. Avoid the use of paragraphs that are too small or too large. Small paragraphs, usually of only one or two sentences, are ineffective and suggest poor organization. Large paragraphs, of greater than one page, suggest that the author has not taken enough time during the outline stage to group the evidence together effectively. As a rule of thumb, good paragraphs are 150 to 200 words long, about half a page, or five to eight sentences. Paragraphs contain more than a recitation of facts. Each paragraph must have “singleness of purpose”. That is, it must have a central idea, normally stated as the first, or topic, sentence. It must have evidence which proves the contention of the central idea. It should also have a conclusion that summarizes the findings reached within the paragraph and offers a transition to the next idea by showing how the central idea in one paragraph logically leads to the central idea in the next. Depending on the length of the paper, each theme will likely require the preparation of several paragraphs, which, in addition to each paragraph having a central idea, should collectively prove the contention of the theme. In the first theme of the example provided above, entitled “Preconditions”, the central contention is that World War I had several “long-term” causes. This would be proven through several paragraphs (one on Anglo/Franco-German Rivalry, one on the alliance system, and one on African imperialism), each with a central idea but each also ultimately contributing to the broader contention about long-term causation. The next theme, “Precipitants”, would follow with several more paragraphs. This process continues until you have completed each of the themes and sub-themes that need to be addressed. Using Quotations Effectively Direct quotations from primary and secondary sources can be useful when offering evidence to prove your thesis statement. They should, however, be used sparingly and only when the quotation might be misinterpreted or confused if paraphrased. Papers that are strung together with a series of direct quotations usually indicate that the author has not offered an original or argumentative analysis. When they are used, quotations must reproduce exactly the original author’s words, including spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. If any words are added to the quotation for reasons of grammar or coherence, they must be set off in square brackets ([ ]). An ellipsis (. . .) must be used to indicate where words are omitted in the midst of a quotation. It is no longer necessary to begin or end quotations with ellipses. Here is an example that uses the first sentence of this paragraph: “Direct quotations . . . can be useful when . . . prov[ing] your thesis statement.” Short quotations (those of four lines or less) should be incorporated into the text of the essay and enclosed in double quotation marks (“ ”). Quotations within quotations, as in “Tom said, ‘I want to go home,’ and promptly left,” should be placed in single quotation marks. Even single-word quotations—such as Foucault’s use of “power”—are placed into double quotation marks. When incorporating quotations, the entire sentence should be written so that it reads in a correct grammatical form; there must not be a noticeable shift in tense. Commas and periods are placed inside the quotation marks; semi-colons, colons, and questions marks that did not form part of the original quotation, are placed outside the quotation marks. Lengthy quotations—those of more than four lines—must be single-spaced and offset 1 inch from the left and right margins; they do not require quotation marks. These “block quotations” should be used very sparingly and only if the quotation will subsequently be discussed in detail. In most instances, instead of quoting directly, paraphrase the original author’s words and cite this as you would a quotation. The source of all quotations should be referenced. Reference Notes and Introducing Sources Historians use the Chicago Manual of Style (also called the Turabian method) for citing primary and secondary source material. This means using complete footnotes or endnotes and bibliographies rather than the abbreviated or embedded (also called parenthetical) referencing method used in other social science and humanities disciplines. In particular, the MLA (Modern Language Association) method is not acceptable for history essays, and writers who do not use the proper method will normally be penalized. Reference numbers are placed in superscript outside all punctuation at the end of the sentence. For example, “Historians use the Chicago Manual of Style . . . for citing primary and secondary source material.”1 Occasionally, it is necessary to place a reference number within the sentence; this occurs when, for example, only a portion of a sentence is being attributed to another author, while the remainder is your own idea. In such cases, the note should be placed after the portion derived from the other source. The purpose of including reference notes is to allow the reader easy access to the material used when writing the essay. Historians often work with material that is difficult to access, or that has been printed in numerous editions. If a fact or quotation is to be checked, the fullest possible citation is required. In addition, a reference note gives credit to the author of an idea or statement and also demonstrates to the reader the amount of effort and care that has been put into the paper. Always reference material or ideas derived from another source, regardless of whether it is paraphrased or quoted. Ensure that the sources of all statistics are cited; although these often appear to be “objective facts”, they are the result of numerous decisions made by an author during the course of research, and are, therefore, subject to interpretation. It is not necessary to cite sources for facts that are common knowledge (such as that World War I was fought between 1914 and 1918), which might be defined as material that all university students know before commencing their studies. Do not assume that your professor is familiar with everything you have learned in the course of your research and that, therefore, no notes are required. When in doubt, include a note. For the proper referencing format, see Part IV below. Finally, because you will be providing complete references in the notes, it is not usually necessary to indicate the title of articles or books in the body of the essay. For example, instead of writing, “In his article entitled ‘Cleansing and Clarifying: Technology and Perception in Nineteenth-Century London,’ Christopher Otter argues that…,” simply write “Christopher Otter argues that…” and include a reference note indicating the complete title and reference. After you have introduced an author by name for the first time, subsequent references should include only the author’s last name, such as “Otter further argues that….” When it is deemed necessary to include the title of the work within the body of the essay—which is normally only the case if you are discussing multiple works by the same author—the titles of articles, chapters in books, and unpublished documents should be placed in quotation marks, and book titles should be underlined or italicized. The Conclusion The conclusion to the essay is designed to help the reader understand the relevance of the themes that have been examined throughout the paper. It is often described as a “pyramid,” moving from the particular (restating your thesis statement) to the general (explaining why your conclusions are important.) Do not merely summarize the paper and be careful not to introduce new evidence in the conclusion. Make sure that you answer the “So what?” question by explaining how and why your paper has made a contribution to the subject matter. This is a good opportunity to show in what ways your case study or focused topic has wider implications and to suggest a new direction for research into this topic in the future. Like the introduction and the body, the conclusion is a vital component of your paper and must not be neglected. Keep in mind that it is the last thing your professor will read before assigning a grade. It should be about 10% of your paper. Plagiarism Plagiarism occurs when an author, either deliberately or without the exercise of reasonable judgment, passes off the writing of another as his or her own. A plagiarized paper will automatically be failed and can also result in failure of the course and other penalties, as outlined in the University Calendar. Plagiarism can include, but is not limited to, using a few important words, merely rewording a sentence or paragraph, or using another author’s ideas, without providing a citation to the original source. To avoid plagiarizing another’s work, accurately reference all direct quotations (which should be enclosed in quotation marks) and paraphrases, ideas or information derived from another source, and all concepts that are not commonly known. Lack of references usually suggests plagiarized work, so when in doubt include a footnote. Plagiarism also occurs when an author submits work that is borrowed from another person, purchased, ghostwritten, submitted for credit in another course, or that has been extensively edited by a third party to the degree that it barely resembles the original. Rewriting and Proofreading Once the draft of your paper is complete, rewriting begins. If possible, set the draft aside for a few days and return to it with a fresh, analytical eye. Read the paper over slowly—some authors prefer to read the paper aloud—and identify and correct weak grammatical constructions, illogical statements, poor argumentation, or lack of evidence to prove a central idea or thesis statement. You might find that one paragraph belongs in a different place, or that the introduction does not lay out the argument very clearly. Take this opportunity to correct these errors. Check your diction to ensure that every word you have used is the right one. In English, very few words have exact synonyms, so select the correct word and not one that is merely close in meaning. The re-writing process is vital to the success of an essay because, when properly and carefully done, it usually results in the reduction of non-essential prose, considerably more clarity and precision, and a taut, logical, argument that has no superfluous elements. After rewriting the paper (twice, if time allows), proofread it carefully to identify and correct spelling, grammatical, and punctuation errors and pass the paper to a friend who can find mistakes that you did not see. Part III: Writing Book Reviews A book review is an assessment of the work of other historians. Book reviews are used not only to report on the content of a book, but also to evaluate and critique the work by considering the author’s argument, structure, evidence, and logic. Historians also read book reviews to learn about fields that are outside their own specialties, which means the review should be written for an educated, non-specialist audience. The book review accomplishes these tasks in a limited number of words, usually between 500 and 750 words, or 2-3 double spaced pages. It is important to think of the book review as a short essay, which means that it, like a research essay, has an introduction, argument, body, and conclusion. The Art of Criticism Criticism, or evaluation, is at the heart of a book review. A good book review can tell other historians whether or not they should read a book and in what ways they should be cautious while reading it. Good reviewers, however, also give credit when credit is due. Authors make many decisions and encounter many obstacles when writing a book, most of which you will not be aware of while reading. Respecting this complex process should prevent you from criticizing just for the sake of doing so. Criticism must be constructive and you must be able to back your criticism up by drawing upon your own knowledge or logic. It is not enough to write, “I do not like the way the argument is developed.” What is wrong with the argument and how could it be made better? You might write, instead, “The argument, though strongly asserted, is not persuasive because the author has not used enough primary sources.” The Introduction The introduction to a book review should begin by giving the author and title of the book. This is usually done by placing the complete citation for the book at the head of the review, about which see part IV below. The first paragraph of the review should indicate the author’s intentions for the book; state the argument that is developed in the book in one, succinct sentence; situate the themes of the book with other, relevant works of history; and take a position on the overall strengths and weaknesses of the book. Like essays, good book reviews have a thesis statement, which is the argument you will be making in the review. For example, you are making an argument when writing: “In his book Innocence Abroad, historian Benjamin Schmidt successfully shows the relevance of Dutch activities in the New World.” This thesis suggests that the author was successful in achieving the goal and argument set for the book, while other thesis statements might be more critical about these accomplishments. The Body The body of the book review is used to answer a number of questions about the book, each of which may be handled in a separate paragraph. While it is not necessary—or, sometimes, even possible—to answer all of these questions, or to devote equal space to each one, the review must be as comprehensive as possible. ü What issues does the book cover? It is neither necessary nor desirable to summarize the entire book, or even each chapter. Instead, include a paragraph which indicates the chronological and thematic sweep of the book, the main issues that are addressed, and how these contribute to the overall thesis of the book. It is important in this section that you show a sound understanding of the material. ü What is relevant about the author and the audience? What other books has this author written to which this book contributes? Are there specific aspects of the author’s background (race, religion, education, nationality, etc.) that affect (positively or negatively) the author’s interpretation? Who should and who should not read this book? Why was this book written? ü What historical genre and theoretical approach best fits this book? Is this a biography, an economic, cultural, social, intellectual, environmental, political, military, or religious study? Does the author employ a feminist, Marxist, Whig, Annales, or revisionist methodology? Does the author offer an interdisciplinary approach by fitting the book into more than one genre or theoretical approach? Does the author use a theoretical approach that he or she is not even aware is being used? ü What evidence does the author use? Is the book based on primary or secondary research? Is the primary research based on archival documents or printed sources? Does the author’s choice to use certain evidence result in a skewed interpretation? Does the author fail to consider evidence or works that challenge his or her interpretation? Does the evidence presented suggest an alternate interpretation to you than was suggested by the author? Does the author base her or his interpretation on hard evidence (the facts) or on inference (informed opinion)? ü How, and how well, is the information presented? Is the book organized and structured well? Is the argument developed chronologically or thematically, or does the author use a combination of both? Are important themes and terms properly and sufficiently defined? Does the writing flow well or is it turgid or technically flawed to the point of causing problems for the reader? Are there intelligent transitions from one theme to the next? Does the introduction properly introduce the main themes of the book and provide the argument, and does the conclusion reflect well on the issues addressed? The Conclusion The concluding paragraph should comment on the overall significance of the work. What new questions has the author brought up or answered? What further work needs to be done on the subject now that this book has been written? This is also an opportunity to reflect on the overall strengths and weaknesses of the work. For example, if the author has placed too much emphasis on one theme to the exclusion of another, this is noteworthy. Do not use the conclusion to mention minor matters of style (such as typographical errors.) Instead, focus on issues of key importance to historians, such as the strength of the thesis and the contribution of the book to its field. Quotations and Referencing Although quotations should be used sparingly in a book review, they are often useful when rehearsing the author’s specific thesis statement, the use of new or peculiar terms, or passages of special merit. Quotations should be followed with a parenthetical citation that includes the page number. For example, (p. 35). References to the book under review that are paraphrased may be done in the same manner. When citing from other secondary sources, such as the arguments of other historians, whether or not these are enclosed in quotation marks, include a footnote or endnote in the manner shown in part IV below. Part IV: Style and Referencing Guide Presentation, writing style, and proper referencing are as important as the argument itself. When done properly, these elements of the essay show the reader that you are serious about the study of history and organized and concerned about your work. Make no mistake about it: essays that are poorly presented, written, or referenced show a careless disregard for your studies that will always negatively affect your grade. Most importantly, it only takes a few extra minutes to make sure that your paper is ship shape! Presentation Format The entire essay (except for block quotations) must be double spaced and written in paragraph form, not block form. This means that the first line of each paragraph is indented and there is no additional space between paragraphs, merely the standard double-spacing. Essays must have a title page, which includes your name and student number, professor’s and teaching assistant’s name (if applicable), course number and section (if applicable), and the date. Essays must be typewritten, using an easily-readable font (Times New Roman is a favourite), in 12-point, 1 inch margins all around, with page numbers on all pages except the title page (which does not factor into the page count). Few professors will accept handwritten assignments. Do not use coloured paper, unusual fonts, or irrelevant pictures or drawings. Do not put your paper into a duotang or have it bound; instead, a staple in the upper-left corner is preferred. When a professor gives a page limit, it is with the understanding that a page has about 250 words, so a 10-page paper is 2500 words. Cramming more words in using smaller margins and smaller fonts will not escape the eye of your marker, and some professors refuse to grade papers that are too long. The ability to write within a prescribed limit is much more challenging than writing a long, tedious paper, and professors are also testing these skills. Grammar and Style Historians use the standard conventions of the English language to communicate their findings to their audience. In order to be understood and persuasive, your writing must conform to the basic rules of grammar and style. Write in a clear, concise, and precise manner. Simple, direct writing is always preferable to writing that appears as if a thesaurus was frequently consulted. For example, it is preferable to write that one is “paid” not “remunerated”, one is “angered” not “infuriated”, one “uses” not “utilizes,” etcetera. Work hard to purge your writing of colourful adjectives, adverbs, superfluity, repetition, and unwarranted complexity. Avoid qualifiers such as very, extremely, usually, and mostly, etcetera. These terms are passive and imprecise. Essays are written in formal language which displays objectivity and seriousness. Common Grammar and Punctuation Mistakes Especially when frequently or carelessly committed, many common grammar mistakes reflect badly on the credibility of the author. Essays that are poorly written will always result in a lower grade. Here are ten common errors that professors dislike. 1. Dangling participles and modifiers. These occur when you modify the wrong noun or verb in a sentence. To write, for example, that “If well written, you should do well on the essay,” suggests that you (the pronoun) need to be well written, not the essay (the noun). The sentence should read “You will do well on the essay if it is well written.” Here is another example: “I saw the Eiffel Tower walking through Paris.” Was the Eiffel Tower walking through Paris or were you? The sentence should read, “While walking through Paris, I saw the Eiffel Tower.” 2. Subject-object and subject-verb disagreements. Sometimes called “singular-plural disagreements”, these occur when you alter the tense of a sentence part-way through. For example: “We study history because you can apply the skills elsewhere” changes the tense from the plural subject (“we”) to the singular object (“you”). Writing “John’s statement of grievances were presented to the president” is incorrect because the singular subject (“statement of grievances”) shifts to a plural verb (“were presented”). The sentence should read: “John’s statement of grievances was presented to the president.” 3. Shifts between past and present tense. A similar lack of agreement occurs when you write, for example, that “King Henry VIII was important because he is responsible for the English Reformation”, or vice versa. As a general rule, always write in the past tense. 4. Incomplete sentences. Also called “sentence fragments”, these are independent or subordinate clauses that do not have a subject or verb. Such as this sentence. In this example, there is no subject. Instead, the first two sentences must be joined together using a comma to be complete. 5. Colloquialisms, clichés, euphemisms, and metaphors/similies. Though colourful, these literary devices are usually tiresome, imprecise, and misleading. It is colloquial to write that “World War I was horrible,” and it is a cliché to write that during World War I, “Europe was going to Hell in a handbasket.” A euphemism is a polite, yet often meaningless term used to cover up reality; it should be used sparingly. A short person is not “vertically challenged” and a trash collector is not a “sanitation engineer.” Metaphors and similies, while not prohibited, should be used with caution. Writing statements such as “Henry VIII was the Winton Churchill of his generation” or “Hitler was like a rabid dog” obscures more than it reveals. 6. Sentences ending with prepositions. Prepositions include, among others, the words in, at, on, to, and with. These should never be used to end sentences. Usually, the sentence will read correctly if you drop the intended preposition. Thus, “Where are you going?” instead of “Where are you going to?”; “What time are you coming home?” instead of “What time are you coming home at?” 7. Comma splices. This error is the result of either joining two independent clauses without using a conjunction, or joining two complete sentences together using only a comma. Thus, “The coffee was fresh, I had a cup” is incorrect. Use either “The coffee was fresh. I had a cup”; “The coffee was fresh, and I had a cup”; or “The coffee was fresh; I had a cup.” It is also incorrect to separate the subject from the object: “England, is a small country” is wrong, while “England is a small country” is correct. 8. Misusing the apostrophe. Apostrophes are used only to indicate possessives, not for pronouns that refer to an antecedent noun. Thus, “the man’s car,” the “girls’ hockey team” (in which there is more than one girl, forcing the apostrophe to go after the “s”), and “women’s history” (in which the possessive for the plural is placed before the “s”) are all correct. The same rules apply to possessive forms of names that end in “s”, such as “Dickens’s writings” and “Yates’s poetry”. Writing “England was it’s own worst enemy” is incorrect because “its” is a pronoun which refers to the antecedent noun “England” and not to a possessive. The sentence should read: “England was its own worst enemy.” Finally, do not use apostrophes to form plurals: “The Smiths live here” is correct; “The Smith’s live here” is not. One eats “hamburger buns”, not “hamburger bun’s.” 9. Confusing “that” and “which”. “That” is used in restrictive clauses and “which” is used in non-restrictive clauses. Thus, “It was these two factors that led to the war” is correct because “that” refers to an essential (restrictive) component of the sentence. “The Great Reform Act, which gave all middle-class men the right to vote, was passed in 1832” is correct because “which” refers to a non-essential (non-restrictive) component. The sentence would still read correctly if the non-restrictive clause was removed: “The Great Reform Act was passed in 1832.” 10. Hyphens and Dashes. A hyphen (-) is used to join compound words that cannot be spelled as a single word. The words caffeine-free and mass-produced, for example, and words that might otherwise be misinterpreted (such as re-creation instead of recreation) require hyphens. Standard compounds, such as birthrate and cooperation, do not. Hyphens are not used to set off an independent clause. Independent clauses that are too distinct from the sentence to use commas should be set off by dashes, which are twice the length of a hyphen (—). The sentence “There is no consensus—nor need there be—about this matter” is correct; using hyphens in place of the dashes in this sentence, however, would lead to confusion. Footnotes, Endnotes, and Bibliographies When to reference has been discussed in Part II above. Most professors will insist that you use, consistently and correctly, the referencing format for notes and the bibliography that is described in the Chicago Manual of Style. The remainder of this part will provide explanations and examples of proper notation and bibliographical formats. Proper Note Format Footnotes (at the bottom of each page) and endnotes (placed at the end of the essay before the bibliography) in history essays differ only in their placement. You can use either footnotes or endnotes (not both) in your essay, although professors generally prefer footnotes for ease of access. These notes should be numbered consecutively from the beginning of the paper. All computer word-processing programs have built-in footnote and endnote functions that make it easy to number and place notes, and to add or delete notes throughout the writing and rewriting process. Notes must include all information necessary to locate the source easily. This might include author(s), title and subtitle, name of editor(s) and/or translator(s), edition or volume number, publisher and place and date of publication, and page numbers. Any information that is missing—which is often the case with older publications—should be omitted without comment. Second and subsequent references to sources are made using “short form” reference. References to entire books should omit page numbers, while references to one or more pages should be indicated following the publishing information. It is no longer necessary to include “p.” (for one page) or “pp.” (for multiple pages). 1. Single-author books Book entries are written as a single sentence separated by commas. Title are capitalized and underlined (or italicized), with subtitles separated by a colon. The publishing information (city: publisher, year) is placed in parentheses. If the reference applies to the entire book, no page number is necessary. Otherwise, put the relevant page number(s) after the year of publication. It is not necessary to use the abbreviation “p.” or “pp.” 1 Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of Marth Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785-1812 (New York: Vintage Books, 1991), 19. Second and subsequent references to sources are made using “short form” reference, which include the author’s last name, a short version of the title, and the page number. 5 Ulrich, Midwife’s Tale, 43-56. When two footnotes from the same source immediately follow one another, the second reference may be abbreviated using “Ibid.”, which is short for “Ibidem”, Latin for “in the same matter”. 6 Ibid., 52. Note that other Latin terminology once used in footnotes, such as Op. cit., Loc. cit., and Idem., are no longer used. Books that were written in previous centuries should indicate as much information as is available, and retain original spelling. 6 John Dee, General and Rare Memorials Pertayning to the Perfecte Arte of Navigation (London, 1577). [Note that there is no publisher information available. If the year of publication is written in Roman numerals, such as “MDLXXVII”, this should be changed to standard numbers (1577).] Some books have national, corporate, or organizational authors. 23 Great Britain, Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts, Calendar of the Manuscripts of the Most Honourable the Marquis of Salisbury, Preserved at Hatfield House (London: Her Majesty’s Stationer’s Office, 1885), 45. [Note that the highest authority, “Great Britain”, is indicated first, followed by the next highest authority.] 2. Multi-author books For books with two or three authors, the authors’ names should be listed as they appear on the title page. 12 Robin W. Winks and Lee Palmer Wandel, Europe in a Wider World, 1350-1650 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 11-15. 16 Winks and Wandel, Europe in a Wider World, 17. If there are four or more authors, use “and others”, which is preferable today to the Latin “et al”, although both are considered correct. 8 John Briggs and others, Crime and Punishment in England: An Introductory History (London: UCL Press, 1996), 7. 13 Briggs and others, Crime and Punishment, 56. 3. Edited Collections and Essays or Documents Within For complete references to collections of essays or primary sources, indicate the editors. 2 Andrew Barrett and Christopher Harrison, ed., Crime and Punishment in England: A Sourcebook (London: UCL Press, 1999), 45-47. 4 Barrett and Harrison, eds., Crime and Punishment, 68. When a specific essay or document is being referred to in an edited collection, refer to the author and title of the specific work you are using. The title is placed in quotation marks, while the book’s title is underlined. 16 Alfred W. Crosby, “Infectious Disease and the Demography of the Atlantic Peoples,” in The Atlantic World in the Age of Empire, ed. Thomas Benjamin and Timothy Hall (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001), 169-179. 18 Crosby, “Infectious Disease,” 172. 4. Translated and Edited books For books that have been translated, place the original author first and indicate the name of the translator after the title. 23 Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Random House, 1995), 27. The same rules apply for older materials that have been edited. 56 John Dee, The Limits of the British Empire, ed. Ken MacMillan (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2004), 34. 5. Multi-Volume or Multi-Edition Works For books with multiple volumes, indicate the total number of volumes after the title and indicate the specific volume number being used before the page number. 9 William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 1: 153. 11 Blackstone, Commentaries, 2: 345. When there are multiple editions of a book, indicate the edition being used, using “2d ed.”, “3rd ed.”, etc., “rev. ed.” for revised editions, or “enl. ed.” for enlarged editions. It is not necessary to indicate the edition number if it is the first. 4 Thomas H. Greer and Gavin Lewis, A Brief History of the Western World, 8th ed. (Toronto: Nelson, 2002). 7 Greer and Lewis, Brief History, 56. 6. Journal Articles For journal articles that are in print, place the title of the article in quotations marks and underline or italicize the title of the journal. Note the volume (30), year of publication, and pages numbers following a colon. Most journals number pages consecutively throughout an entire year; when a journal begins each issue with page one, it is necessary to indicate the issue number after the volume (30:3). 5 William V. Flores, “New Citizens, New Rights: Undocumented Immigrants and Latino Cultural Citizenship,” Latin American Perspectives 30 (2003): 87-100. 8 Flores, “New Citizens, New Rights,” 89. Some journals have distinct series, which reuse the volume numbers. In such cases, the series must be noted. 15 Carole Shammas, “The Space Problem in Early United States Cities,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. ser., 57 (2000): 505-542. Journal articles accessed electronically that originally appeared in print (that is, in a permanent, paper version) should be referenced as above, using the original page numbers. Correct page numbers will be found by downloading the Adobe Acrobat version of the on-line file (.pdf) instead of the .html file. When in doubt, consult the printed version. Journals that are only available on the world wide web should be referenced as follows: 48 Daniel Gorman, “Wider and Wider Still?: Racial Politics, Intra-Imperial Immigration and the Absence of an Imperial Citizenship in the British Empire,” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 3.3 (2002), http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_colonialism_and_colonial_history/toc/cch3.3.html (accessed 15 May 2004), para. 31. Note that because this article is not elsewhere available, and thus the URL (uniform resource locator), date the article is accessed, and paragraph number is cited. 7. Book Reviews Book reviews are referenced by the author of the review, not of the book being reviewed. 13 Heather J. Coleman, review of Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s, by S. Fitzpatrick, Canadian Journal of History 36 (2001): 151-152. 15 Coleman, review of Everyday Stalinism, 151. 8. Plays, Poems, and Biblical References Well-known plays, poems, and Biblical references that carry act, scene, section, or chapter, line, or verse numbers do not need to be referenced with publication information unless the edition being used is important to the discussion of the texts. 12 William Shakespeare, King Lear, 2.3.12-16. 15 John Milton, Paradise Lost, book 1, lines 670-74. 18 King James Bible, 1 Corinthians 13.9. 9. Magazine or Newspaper Article References to magazine articles are similar to journal articles: 47 Heather Pringle, “Alberta Barren,” Saturday Night, June 1997: 30. If you are citing from a regular feature without a title, capitalize the feature title, but do not underline, italicize or use quotations marks. 37 Currents in the News, U.S. News and World Report, 11 February 1980, 5. Citations to newspapers include the month and day of the issue but can leave out page numbers. Cite the edition if the paper has more than one (i.e. morning and evening). 21 Oliver Moore, “Rumsfeld Glad to Flee Washington for Baghdad,” Globe and Mail, May 13, 2004. [Note: the article The is left off the title Globe and Mail.] If you accessed the article online, provide the URL. Use only the main entrance to the newspaper or service if the full URL will quickly become invalid, as is usually the case. 19 Alan Fram, “Official Says War Budget to Exceed $50B,” Yahoo! News, March 13, 2004, http://dailynews.yahoo.com/. 10. Article in Encyclopedia or Dictionary The use of dictionaries and encyclopedia should be avoided unless these works have acquired a certain historical importance (such as the 1911 edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.) When they are used, however, cite the entry as clearly as possible. 32 William B. Robison, “Kidd, William (ca. 1645-1701),” in Absolutism and the Scientific Revolution, 1600-1720: A Biographical Dictionary, ed. Christopher Baker (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002), 205. 34 Robison, “Kidd, William,” 205. Well-known reference books do not need to be accompanied by the facts of publication, unless there is potential for confusion. The entry being explained should be listed, plus “s.v.”, Latin for sub verbo, or “under the word.” 45 Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. “Dee, John.” 67 Dictionary of Canadian Biography, s.v. “Russell, Charles.” 11. Dissertations and Theses Dissertation and thesis titles are placed in quotations marks because they are not published. Also include the type of thesis and the place and year of completion. 3 Ken R. MacMillan, “The Influence of the Zurich Reformed Tradition on the Elizabethan Church, 1559-1563” (M.A. Thesis, Queen’s University, Canada, 1997), 87. 6 MacMillan, “Influence,” 32. 12. Electronic Resources Documents on the internet should include the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and date on which the material was accessed. 19 Martin Luther, “Address to the Nobility of the German Nation (1520),” in Internet Modern History Sourcebook, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/luther-nobility.html (15 May 2004). References to documents on CD-ROMs should include as much information as possible. It is often impossible to put a page number; this may be omitted silently or some other method of locating the document (such as that indicated below) may be possible. 14 Bartholomew Las Casas, “Amerindians and the Garden of Eden,” Western Civilization Documents CD-ROM (Upper Saddle: Prentice Hall, 2004), doc. 10.4. 13. Archival and Manuscript Sources The method of referencing a source from an archive differs depending on the archive where it is housed and the collection in which it is found. In general, the document should be described as fully and as consistently as possible with the Chicago Manual of Style, by citing author, title, the archive where the document is housed, and its shelfmark (library locator information). When in doubt, refer to the archive’s website or to books that reference documents from that archive. Unknown information may be silently omitted. The following example is taken from a document housed in the British Library. 34 John Dee, “Brytanici Imperii Limites,” British Library, Additional Manuscripts 59681, fols. 21-25. 39 Dee, “Brytanici Imperii Limites,” fol. 37. 14. Interviews If you are referencing an interview that was broadcast or published, the citation should include the name of the person interviewed, the title of the interview (if applicable), the interviewer's name (if this was you, write “interview by the author”), the medium (e.g. book, television show) where the interview appeared, and the date of the interview. 42 Margaret Thatcher, “Britain's Iron Lady,” interview by Barbara Frum, The Journal, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 27 September 1983. 45 Isaac Bashevis Singer, interview by Harold Flender, in Writers at Work: The “Review” Interviews, ed. George Plimpton, 5th ser. (New York: Viking Press, 1981), 85. References to interviews that you have conducted or that have not been published or broadcast are referenced as follows: 34 Horace Hunt [pseudo.], interview by Ronald Schatz, tape recording, 16 May 1976, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg. [Note: in this example, the interview has been deposited in an archive.] 35 Karl-Heinz Mehlan, interview by Annette F. Timm, Anna-Sabine Ernst and Donna Harsh, tape recording, Rostock, Germany, 1 June 1996. 15. Explanatory Notes and Multiple References Occasionally, it is desirable to place narrative in notes in order to contextualize a discussion without delaying the development of your argument. 45 Clinton L. Evans, The War on Weeds in the Prairie West: An Environmental History (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2002). Clinton argues that there is a fundamental economic relationship between people and weeds in subsistence or non-capitalist societies. This relationship determined both how agricultural societies developed and how weed control would be conducted. It is sometimes necessary to put several sources into one footnote, if all the sources refer to the material that is being referenced. In such cases, works should be separated by semi-colons. 17 Glenn Burgess, The Politics of the Ancient Constitution: An Introduction to English Political Thought, 1603-42 (University Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), 34-56; Brian Levack, The Civil Lawyers in England, 1603-1641: A Political Study (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), 43-67; Johann Sommerville, “English and European Political Ideas in the Early Seventeenth Century: Revisionism and the Case of Absolutism,” Journal of British Studies 35 (1996): 168-94. 16. Additional Material For detailed explanations on how to reference additional material, such as music scores, videos, documentaries, and legal cases, consult one of the sources listed in the Further Resources section below. Proper Bibliographical Format A bibliography is a list of all the sources that were consulted in the course of researching and writing the essay. As a result, some works might be cited in the bibliography that are not otherwise referenced in the essay. Do not, however, include clearly irrelevant material in the bibliography. The main difference between notes and bibliographical entries is how the information is presented, rather than what is presented. Entries are alphabetized by the author’s last name or institution and the various elements of the reference are separated by periods instead of commas. Short titles are not used in bibliographies and page ranges are only used for journal articles. Primary and secondary sources are usually separated, although it is not always necessary to separate them further unless an extensive list of sources has been used. What follows is an example of a properly-formatted bibliography, using examples from the previous section. Bibliography Primary Sources Manuscript [use only when manuscript sources have been consulted] Dee, John. “Brytanici Imperii Limites.” British Library, Additional Manuscripts 59681. Great Britain Public Record Office. Patent Roll, C/66. ------. State Papers, 14/164. [Note: The three-em dash (------.) is used when the author’s name is the same as the last entry, in this case, “Great Britain Public Record Office.] Electronic [use only when electronic sources have been consulted] Las Casas, Bartholomew. “Amerindians and the Garden of Eden.” In Western Civilization Documents CD-ROM. Upper Saddle, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004). Luther, Martin. “Address to the Nobility of the German Nation (1520).” In Internet Modern History Sourcebook, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/luther-nobility.html (15 May 2004). Printed [use only when printed sources have been consulted] Blackstone, William. Commentaries on the Laws of England. 4 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979. [Note that the publishing information is not placed in parentheses.] Dee, John. General and Rare Memorials Pertayning to the Perfecte Arte of Navigation. London, 1577. Foucault, Michael. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Random House, 1995. Great Britain Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts. Calendar of the Manuscripts of the Most Honourable the Marquis of Salisbury, Preserved at Hatfield House. London: Her Majesty’s Stationer’s Office, 1885. Secondary Sources Brown, Christopher L. “The Politics of Slavery.” In The British Atlantic World, 1500-1800, ed. David Armitage and Michael Braddick. New York: Palgrave, 2002. Coleman, Heather. Review of Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s, by S. Fitzpatrick. Canadian Journal of History 36 (2001): 151-152. Flores, William V. “New Citizens, New Rights: Undocumented Immigrants and Latino Cultural Citizenship.” Latin American Perspectives 30 (2003): 87-100. Gorman, Daniel. “Wider and Wider Still?: Racial Politics, Intra-Imperial Immigration and the Absence of an Imperial Citizenship in the British Empire.” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 3.3 (2002), http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_colonialism _and_colonial_history/toc/cch3.3.html (accessed 15 May 2004). Greer, Thomas H. and Gavin Lewis, A Brief History of the Western World, 8th ed. (Toronto: Nelson, 2002). [Note that only the first author’s name is reversed.] Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of Marth Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785-1812. New York: Vintage Books, 1991. Winks, Robin W., and Lee Palmer Wandel. Europe in a Wider World, 1350-1650. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Annotated Bibliographies Professors will sometimes request that an annotated bibliography be submitted, either with the essay or with a research proposal that precedes the essay. This uses the same format as that shown above, except that each entry is accompanied by a brief statement summarizing the source and showing why it is being used in the paper. Annotations should be approximately 25-50 words in length. For example: Sharpe, James. The Bewitching of Anne Gunter: A Horrible and True Story of Deception, Witchcraft, Murder, and the King of England. New York: Routledge, 2001. Using the evidence of a single case that came before the Court of Star Chamber in 1611, Sharpe shows the importance of belief systems and the workings of the law in early modern England. Further Resources The most recent edition of the following resources should be consulted for additional guidelines on writing and referencing history essays. Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers. 15th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. Marius, Richard, and Melvin E. Page. A Short Guide to Writing About History. 4th ed. New York: Longman, 2002. Rampolla, Mary Lynn. A Pocket Guide to Writing in History. 4th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004. Storey, William Kelleher and Towser Jones. Writing History: A Guide for Students. Canadian ed. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press, 2004. Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 6th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
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